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Computer (occupation)

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Indian writer and mental calculator known as the human computer, see <a href="Shakuntala_Devi" title="Shakuntala Devi">Shakuntala Devi</a>. For other mental calculators, see <a href="Mental_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental calculator">Mental calculator</a>. For the usage of human thought as part of computing, see <a href="Human-based_computation" title="Human-based computation">human-based computation</a>.</div>

The term "computer", in use from the early 17th century (the first known written reference dates from 1613),<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> meant "one who computes": a person performing mathematical <a href="Calculation" title="Calculation">calculations</a>, before <a href="Electronic_calculators" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic calculators">electronic calculators</a> became available. <a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> described the "human computer" as someone who is "supposed to be following fixed rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuring1950-2">[2]</a> Teams of people, often women from the late nineteenth century onwards, were used to undertake long and often tedious calculations; the work was divided so that this could be done in parallel. The same calculations were frequently performed independently by separate teams to check the correctness of the results.

Since the end of the 20th century, the term "human computer" has also been applied to individuals with prodigious powers of <a href="Mental_calculation" title="Mental calculation">mental arithmetic</a>, also known as <a href="Mental_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental calculator">mental calculators</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_in_sciences">Origins in sciences</h2></div>

<a href="Astronomer" title="Astronomer">Astronomers</a> in <a href="Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> times used that term about as often as they called themselves "<a href="Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematicians</a>" for their principal work of calculating the <a href="Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">positions of planets</a>. They often hired a "computer" to assist them. For some people, such as <a href="Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, assisting a scientist in computation was a temporary position until they moved on to greater advancements. Before he died in 1617, <a href="John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> suggested ways by which "the learned, who perchance may have plenty of pupils and computers" might construct an improved <a href="Mirifici_Logarithmorum_Canonis_Descriptio" title="Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio">logarithm table</a>.<a href="#cite_note-constructio-trans-3">[3]</a>: p.46

Computing became more organized when the Frenchman <a href="Alexis_Claude_Clairaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexis Claude Clairaut">Alexis Claude Clairaut</a> (1713–1765) divided the computation to determine the time of the return of <a href="Halley's_Comet" title="Halley's Comet">Halley's Comet</a> with two colleagues, <a href="J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Lalande" title="Jérôme Lalande">Jérôme Lalande</a> and <a href="Nicole-Reine_Lepaute" title="Nicole-Reine Lepaute">Nicole-Reine Lepaute</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200522–25-4">[4]</a> Human computers continued plotting the future movements of astronomical objects to create celestial tables for <a href="Almanac" title="Almanac">almanacs</a> in the late 1760s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200529–30-5">[5]</a>

The computers working on the <a href="The_Nautical_Almanac" title="The Nautical Almanac">Nautical Almanac</a> for the British Admiralty included <a href="William_Wales_(astronomer)" title="William Wales (astronomer)">William Wales</a>, <a href="Israel_Lyons" title="Israel Lyons">Israel Lyons</a> and <a href="Richard_Dunthorne" title="Richard Dunthorne">Richard Dunthorne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200530-6">[6]</a> The project was overseen by <a href="Nevil_Maskelyne" title="Nevil Maskelyne">Nevil Maskelyne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200529-7">[7]</a> Maskelyne would borrow tables from other sources as often as he could in order to reduce the number of calculations his team of computers had to make.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200531-8">[8]</a> Women were generally excluded, with some exceptions such as <a href="Mary_Edwards_(human_computer)" title="Mary Edwards (human computer)">Mary Edwards</a> who worked from the 1780s to 1815 as one of thirty-five computers for the British Nautical Almanac used for navigation at sea. The United States also worked on their own version of a nautical almanac in the 1840s, with <a href="Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a> being one of the best-known computers on the staff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200561-9">[9]</a>

Other innovations in human computing included the work done by a group of boys who worked in the Octagon Room of the <a href="Royal_Observatory%2C_Greenwich" title="Royal Observatory, Greenwich">Royal Greenwich Observatory</a> for Astronomer Royal <a href="George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Airy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200550-10">[10]</a> Airy's computers, hired after 1835, could be as young as fifteen, and they were working on a backlog of astronomical data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200550–51-11">[11]</a> The way that Airy organized the Octagon Room with a manager, pre-printed computing forms, and standardized methods of calculating and checking results (similar to the way the Nautical Almanac computers operated) would remain a standard for computing operations for the next 80 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200554-12">[12]</a>

Women were increasingly involved in computing after 1865.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200581-13">[13]</a> Private companies hired them for computing and to manage office staff.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200581-13">[13]</a>

In the 1870s, the United States <a href="Signal_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Corps (United States Army)">Signal Corps</a> created a new way of organizing human computing to track weather patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200577-14">[14]</a> This built on previous work from the <a href="United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">US Navy</a> and the <a href="Meteorological_intelligence" title="Meteorological intelligence">Smithsonian meteorological project</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200576-15">[15]</a> The Signal Corps used a small computing staff that processed data that had to be collected quickly and finished in "intensive two-hour shifts".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200576–77-16">[16]</a> Each individual human computer was responsible for only part of the data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200577-14">[14]</a>

In the late nineteenth century <a href="Edward_Charles_Pickering" title="Edward Charles Pickering">Edward Charles Pickering</a> organized the "<a href="Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200582–83-17">[17]</a> The first woman to approach them, <a href="Anna_Winlock" title="Anna Winlock">Anna Winlock</a>, asked <a href="Harvard_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard Observatory">Harvard Observatory</a> for a computing job in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200582-18">[18]</a> By 1880, all of the computers working at the Harvard Observatory were women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier200582-18">[18]</a> The standard computer pay started at twenty-five cents an hour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel201631-19">[19]</a> There would be such a huge demand to work there, that some women offered to work for the Harvard Computers for free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2016105-20">[20]</a> Many of the women astronomers from this era were computers with possibly the best-known being <a href="Florence_Cushman" title="Florence Cushman">Florence Cushman</a>, <a href="Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a>, and <a href="Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie Jump Cannon</a>, who worked with Pickering from 1888, 1893, and 1896 respectively. Cannon could classify stars at a rate of three per minute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201823-21">[21]</a> <a href="Williamina_Fleming" title="Williamina Fleming">Mina Fleming</a>, one of the Harvard Computers, published The Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel201637-22">[22]</a> The catalogue organized stars by <a href="Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">spectral lines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel201637-22">[22]</a> The catalogue continued to be expanded by the Harvard Computers and added new stars in successive volumes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESobel2016181-23">[23]</a> <a href="Elizabeth_Langdon_Williams" title="Elizabeth Langdon Williams">Elizabeth Williams</a> was involved in calculations in the search for a new planet, <a href="Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>, at the <a href="Lowell_Observatory" title="Lowell Observatory">Lowell Observatory</a>.

In 1893, <a href="Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> created the Committee for Conducting Statistical Inquiries into the Measurable Characteristics of Plants and Animals which reported to the <a href="Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005106-24">[24]</a> The committee used advanced techniques for scientific research and supported the work of several scientists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005106-24">[24]</a> <a href="Raphael_Weldon" title="Raphael Weldon">W.F. Raphael Weldon</a>, the first scientist supported by the committee worked with his wife, Florence Tebb Weldon, who was his computer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005106-24">[24]</a> Weldon used logarithms and mathematical tables created by <a href="August_Leopold_Crelle" title="August Leopold Crelle">August Leopold Crelle</a> and had no calculating machine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005106–107-25">[25]</a> <a href="Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a>, who had a lab at the <a href="University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, felt that the work Weldon did was "hampered by the committee".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005107–108-26">[26]</a> However, Pearson did create a mathematical formula that the committee was able to use for data correlation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005108-27">[27]</a> Pearson brought his correlation formula to his own Biometrics Laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005108-27">[27]</a> Pearson had volunteer and salaried computers who were both men and women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005110-28">[28]</a> <a href="Alice_Lee_(mathematician)" title="Alice Lee (mathematician)">Alice Lee</a> was one of his salaried computers who worked with <a href="Histogram" title="Histogram">histograms</a> and the <a href="Chi-squared_distribution" title="Chi-squared distribution">chi-squared</a> statistics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005111-29">[29]</a> Pearson also worked with <a href="Beatrice_Mabel_Cave-Browne-Cave" title="Beatrice Mabel Cave-Browne-Cave">Beatrice</a> and <a href="Frances_Cave-Browne-Cave" title="Frances Cave-Browne-Cave">Frances Cave-Brown-Cave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005111-29">[29]</a> Pearson's lab, by 1906, had mastered the art of <a href="Mathematical_table" title="Mathematical table">mathematical table</a> making.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005111-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_tables">Mathematical tables</h2></div>

Human computers were used to compile 18th and 19th century Western European <a href="Mathematical_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical tables">mathematical tables</a>, for example those for <a href="Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> and <a href="Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithms</a>. Although these tables were most often known by the names of the principal <a href="Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> involved in the project, such tables were often in fact the work of an army of unknown and unsung computers. Ever more accurate tables to a high degree of precision were needed for navigation and engineering. Approaches differed, but one was to break up the project into a form of <a href="Piece_work" title="Piece work">piece work</a> completed at home. The computers, often educated middle-class women whom society deemed it unseemly to engage in the professions or go out to work, would receive and send back packets of calculations by post.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell-KellyCroarken200310-30">[30]</a> The Royal Astronomical Society eventually gave space to a new committee, the Mathematical Tables Committee, which was the only professional organization for human computers in 1925.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005173-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fluid_dynamics">Fluid dynamics</h2></div>

Human computers were used to predict the effects of building the <a href="Afsluitdijk" title="Afsluitdijk">Afsluitdijk</a> between 1927 and 1932 in the <a href="Zuiderzee" title="Zuiderzee">Zuiderzee</a> in the <a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. The computer simulation was set up by <a href="Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

A visionary application to meteorology can be found in the scientific work of <a href="Lewis_Fry_Richardson" title="Lewis Fry Richardson">Lewis Fry Richardson</a> who, in 1922, estimated that 64,000 humans could forecast the weather for the whole globe by solving the attending differential <a href="Primitive_equations" title="Primitive equations">primitive equations</a> numerically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt1998xiii–xxxvi-33">[33]</a> Around 1910 he had already used human computers to calculate the stresses inside a masonry dam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoache1998-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wartime_computing_and_electronics">Wartime computing and electronics</h2></div>

It was not until <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> that computing became a profession. "The First World War required large numbers of human computers. Computers on both sides of the war produced map grids, surveying aids, navigation tables and artillery tables. With the men at war, most of these new computers were women and many were college educated."<a href="#cite_note-grier-pioneer-35">[35]</a> This would happen again during <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>; as more men joined the fight, college educated women were left to fill their positions. One of the first female computers, Elizabeth Webb Wilson, was hired by the Army in 1918 and was a graduate of <a href="George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>. Wilson "patiently sought a war job that would make use of her mathematical skill. In later years, she would claim that the war spared her from the 'Washington social whirl', the rounds of society events that should have procured for her a husband"<a href="#cite_note-grier-pioneer-35">[35]</a> and instead she was able to have a career. After the war, Wilson continued with a career in mathematics and became an <a href="Actuary" title="Actuary">actuary</a> and turned her focus to <a href="Life_table" title="Life table">life tables</a>.

Human computers played integral roles in the World War II war effort in the United States, and because of the depletion of the male labor force due to the <a href="Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">draft</a>, many computers during World War II were women, frequently with degrees in mathematics. In the 1940s, women were hired to examine nuclear and particle tracks left on photographic emulsions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELight1999459-36">[36]</a> In the <a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, human computers working with a variety of mechanical aids assisted numerical studies of the complex formulas related to <a href="Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKean201010-37">[37]</a>

Human computers were involved in calculating ballistics tables during World War I.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005151–152-38">[38]</a> Between the two world wars, computers were used in the Department of Agriculture in the United States and also at <a href="Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State College</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005164-39">[39]</a> The human computers in these places also used calculating machines and early electrical computers to aid in their work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005166-40">[40]</a> In the 1930s, The Columbia University Statistical Bureau was created by <a href="Benjamin_D._Wood" title="Benjamin D. Wood">Benjamin Wood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005190-41">[41]</a> Organized computing was also established at <a href="Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a>, the <a href="Cowles_Foundation" title="Cowles Foundation">Cowles Commission</a> and the <a href="National_Academies_of_Sciences%2C_Engineering%2C_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Research Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrier2005195-42">[42]</a>

Following World War II, the <a href="National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (NACA) used human computers in flight research to transcribe raw data from celluloid film and <a href="Oscillograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscillograph">oscillograph</a> paper and then, using <a href="Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rules</a> and electric <a href="Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a>, reduced the data to standard engineering units. <a href="Margot_Lee_Shetterly" title="Margot Lee Shetterly">Margot Lee Shetterly</a>'s biographical book, <a href="Hidden_Figures_(book)" title="Hidden Figures (book)">Hidden Figures</a> (made into a <a href="Hidden_Figures" title="Hidden Figures">movie of the same name</a> in 2016), depicts African-American women who served as human computers at <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> in support of the <a href="Friendship_7" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendship 7">Friendship 7</a>, the first American crewed mission into Earth orbit.<a href="#cite_note-sciam-43">[43]</a> NACA had begun hiring black women as computers from 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201824-44">[44]</a> One such computer was <a href="Dorothy_Vaughan" title="Dorothy Vaughan">Dorothy Vaughan</a> who began her work in 1943 with the <a href="Langley_Research_Center" title="Langley Research Center">Langley Research Center</a> as a special hire to aid the war effort,<a href="#cite_note-NASA-45">[45]</a> and who came to supervise the <a href="West_Area_Computers" title="West Area Computers">West Area Computers</a>, a group of African-American women who worked as computers at Langley. Human computing was, at the time, considered menial work. On November 8, 2019, the <a href="Congressional_Gold_Medal" title="Congressional Gold Medal">Congressional Gold Medal</a> was awarded "In recognition of all the women who served as computers, mathematicians, and engineers at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) between the 1930s and the 1970s."<a href="#cite_note-congress-46">[46]</a>

As electrical computers became more available, human computers, especially women, were drafted as some of the first <a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">computer programmers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELight1999462-47">[47]</a> Because the six people responsible for setting up problems on the <a href="ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (the first general-purpose electronic digital computer built at the <a href="University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> during World War II) were drafted from a corps of human computers, the world's first professional computer programmers were women, namely: <a href="Kathleen_Antonelli" title="Kathleen Antonelli">Kay McNulty</a>, <a href="Betty_Holberton" title="Betty Holberton">Betty Snyder</a>, <a href="Marlyn_Meltzer" title="Marlyn Meltzer">Marlyn Wescoff</a>, <a href="Ruth_Teitelbaum" title="Ruth Teitelbaum">Ruth Lichterman</a>, <a href="Jean_Bartik" title="Jean Bartik">Betty Jean Jennings</a>, and <a href="Frances_Spence" title="Frances Spence">Fran Bilas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated-48">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human-assisted_computation">Human-assisted computation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Mental_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental calculator">Mental calculator</a></div>

The term "human computer" has been recently used by a group of researchers who refer to their work as "human computation".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawvon_Ahn2011-49">[49]</a> In this usage, "human computer" refers to activities of humans in the context of <a href="Human-based_computation" title="Human-based computation">human-based computation</a> (HBC).

This use of "human computer" is debatable for the following reason: HBC is a computational technique where a machine outsources certain parts of a task to humans to perform, which are not necessarily algorithmic. In fact, in the context of HBC most of the time humans are not provided with a sequence of exact steps to be executed to yield the desired result; HBC is agnostic about how humans solve the problem. This is why "outsourcing" is the term used in the definition above. The use of humans in the historical role of "human computers" for <a href="Human-based_computation" title="Human-based computation">HBC</a> is very rare.

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<ul><li><a href="Difference_engine" title="Difference engine">Difference engine</a> – an early automatic mechanical calculator designed to replace human computers</li>

<li><a href="List_of_obsolete_occupations" title="List of obsolete occupations">List of obsolete occupations</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_Tables_Project" title="Mathematical Tables Project">Mathematical Tables Project</a> – a project of the <a href="Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> (WPA) that employed human computers</li>

<li><a href="Mentat" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentat">Mentat</a> – fictional human computers in the <a href="Dune_(franchise)" title="Dune (franchise)">Dune</a> universe</li>

<li><a href="Women_in_computing" title="Women in computing">Women in computing</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li>Grier, David Alan (May 11, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308075109/http://www.philsoc.org/2001Spring/2132transcript.html">The Human Computer and the Birth of the Information Age</a>, Joseph Henry Lecture, <a href="Philosophical_Society_of_Washington" title="Philosophical Society of Washington">Philosophical Society of Washington</a>.</li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFHayles2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="N._Katherine_Hayles" title="N. Katherine Hayles">Hayles, Katherine N.</a> (2005). My Mother Was a Computer: Digital Subjects and Literary Texts. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780226321479</bdi>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/321487.html">Excerpt</a>.</li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFKean2010" class="citation book cs1">Kean, Sam (2010). The Disappearing Spoon – and other true tales from the Periodic Table. London: Black Swan. p. 108. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-552-77750-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLawvon_Ahn2011" class="citation journal cs1">Law, Edith; von Ahn, Luis (2011). "Human Computation". Synthesis Lectures on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. 5 (3): 1–121. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2200%2FS00371ED1V01Y201107AIM013">10.2200/S00371ED1V01Y201107AIM013</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12207236">12207236</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLight1999" class="citation journal cs1">Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–483. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.1999.0128">10.1353/tech.1999.0128</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25147356">25147356</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108407884">108407884</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShetterly2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Margot_Lee_Shetterly" title="Margot Lee Shetterly">Shetterly, Margot Lee</a> (2016). <a href="Hidden_Figures_(book)" title="Hidden Figures (book)">Hidden Figures: The Story of the African-American Women Who Helped Win the Space Race</a>. New York: <a href="William_Morrow_and_Company" title="William Morrow and Company">William Morrow and Company</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRoache1998" class="citation book cs1">Roache, Patrick J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ENRlQgAACAAJ">Verification and Validation in Computational Science and Engineering</a>. Hermosa Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-913478-08-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSobel2016" class="citation book cs1">Sobel, Dava (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AeY3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">The Glass Universe: How the Ladies of the Harvard Observatory Took the Measure of the Stars</a>. New York: Penguin Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780143111344</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTuring1950" class="citation journal cs1">Turing, Alan Mathison (1950). <a href="Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence" title="Computing Machinery and Intelligence">"Computing machinery and intelligence"</a>. Mind. 59 (236): 433–460. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433">10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWolverton2011" class="citation journal cs1">Wolverton, Mark (Fall 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130324142608/http://www.americanheritage.com/content/girl-computers">"Girl Computers"</a>. American Heritage. 61 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanheritage.com/content/girl-computers">the original</a> on March 24, 2013. Retrieved November 8, 2011.</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_computing" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Human computing">Human computing</a>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/People/HTML/E49-0053.html">Early NACA human computers at work</a>, photograph, October 1949.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/12/skinner.htm">The Age of Female Computers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060616074110/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/12/skinner.htm">Archived</a> June 16, 2006, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by David Skinner</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Pickering/PickeringRefs.html">Sonoma State University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210422213305/http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/Pickering/PickeringRefs.html">Archived</a> April 22, 2021, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wellesley.edu/Astronomy/Annie/career.html">Wellesley</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/zuiderzee/zuiderzee.html">Description of model of H. A. Lorentz</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rybn.org/human_computers/">"Human Computers"</a> is an artwork by RYBN.ORG collective, 2016-2020</li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-16" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Computer_(occupation)&oldid=1300741472">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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